Sunday, 13 May 2012

Comparing Learning Theories ~ Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism & Humanistic

hi there...^_^

Learning Theories
Comparison
Among
L. Theories
­­ Behaviorism
Cognitivism
List of Key
Theorists
B.F. Skinner
Ivan Pavlov
Edward Thorndike
John B. Watson
Jean Piaget
Robert Gagne
Lev Vygotsky
Role of
Learners

· Learners are basically
  passive, just responding
  to stimuli.

· Learners process, store & retrieve
   information for later use - creating
   associations and creating a
   knowledge set useful for living.
   The learner uses the information
   processing approach to transfer
   and assimilate new information.
Role of
Teachers
·Instructor designs the
 learning environment.
·Instructor shapes child’s
  behaviour by positive/
  negative reinforcement.
·Teacher presents the    
  information  & then
  students demonstrate
  that they understand the
  material. 
  Students are assessed  
  primarily through tests.

· Instructor manages problem  
  solving & structured search
  activities, especially with group   
  learning strategies.
· Instructor provides opportunities
   for students to connect new
   information to schema.
Key Concepts

Behaviourism is a theory of
animal and human learning
that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities. Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour.

Experiments by behaviourists identify conditioning as a
universal learning process.
There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern:
1.Classic conditioning
  occurs  when a natural  
  reflex responds to  a
  stimulus. The most   
  popular  example is
  Pavlov's observation that
  dogs salivate when they  
  eat or even see food.  
  Essentially, animals and
  people are biologically  
  "wired" so that a certain
  stimulus will produce a
  specific response.
2.Behavioral or operant
   conditioning occurs  
   when a response to a  
   stimulus is reinforced.
  Basically, operant    
  conditioning is a simple  
  feedback system: If a
  reward or reinforcement   
  follows  the response to a  
  stimulus, then the
  response becomes more 
  probable in the future.
   For e.g. leading
   behaviourist B.F.Skinner 
   used reinforcement
   techniques to teach-
   pigeons to dance and
   bowl a ball in a mini
   alley.
Cognitivism focuses on the “brain”. How humans process and store
information was very important in the process of learning.

· Schema - An internal knowledge 
  structure.
  New information is compared to 
  existing cognitive structures
  called "schema".
  Schema may be combined,  
  extended or altered to   
  accommodate new information.
· Three-Stage Information 
  Processing Model – input first
  enters a sensory register, then is
  processed in short-term memory, 
  and then is transferred to long-term
  memory for storage and retrieval.
o Sensory Register - receives input 
   from senses which lasts from less 
   than a second to four seconds and  
   then disappears through decay or
   replacement. Much of the
   information never reaches short
   term memory but all information is
   monitored at some level and acted   
   upon if necessary.
o Short-Term Memory (STM) -
   sensory input that is important or
   interesting is transferred from the
   sensory register to the STM.  
   Memory can be retained here for
   up to 20 seconds or more if 
   rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term
   memory can hold up to 7 plus or
   minus 2 items.STM capacity can
   be increased if material is   
   chunked into meaningful parts.
o Long-Term Memory & Storage  
   (LTM) - stores information from 
   STM for long term use. Long-term
   memory has unlimited capacity.
   Some materials are "forced" into   
   LTM by rote memorization
   and over learning.
   Deeper levels of processing such   
   as generating linkages between 
   old and new information are much
   better for successful retention of  
   material.
· Meaningful Effects - Meaningful 
  information is easier to learn and
  remember. If a learner links
  relatively meaningless information
  with prior schema it will be easier
  to retain.
· Serial Position Effects - It is  
  easier to remember items from
  the beginning or end of a list rather  
  than those in the middle of the list,
unless that item is distinctly different
· Practice Effects - Practicing or 
  Rehearsing improves retention
  especially when it is distributed
  practice. By distributing practices 
  the learner associates the material 
  with many different contexts rather
  than the one context afforded by 
  mass practice.
· Transfer Effects –The effects of 
  prior learning on learning new  
  tasks or material.
· Interference Effects - Occurs when 
  prior learning interferes with the 
  learning of new material.
· Organization Effects - When a
  learner categorizes input such
  as a grocery list, it is easier to 
  remember.
· Levels of Processing Effects -  
  Words may be processed at a low- 
  level sensory analysis of their
  physical characteristics to high- 
  level semantic analysis of their
  meaning. The more deeply a word   
  is process the easier it will be to
  remember.
· State Dependent Effects - If 
  learning takes place within a
  certain context it will be easier to 
  remember within that context
  rather than in a new context.
How Does
Learning Take
Place

Skinner
· Known for operant
  conditioning
· A stimulus is provided
· A response is generated.
· Consequence to the   
   response is present.
·Type of consequence is
  present.
· Reinforcement is 
  provided which could be
  positive or negative.

Pavlov
· Known for classical
  conditioning.
· A spontaneous reaction
  that occurs automatically
  to a particular stimulus.
· To alter the “natural”
  relationship between a   
  stimulus & a reaction
  was viewed as a major
  breakthrough in the study
  of behaviour.

Thorndike
· Thorndike concluded that
  animals learn, solely, by
  trial & error, or reward
  and punishment.
- All learning involves the
  formation of connections,  
  and connections  are
  strengthened according
  to the law of effect.
 Intelligence is the ability to
 form connections and
 humans are the most
 evolved animal because
 they form more 
 connections  than  any
 other being.
- The "law of effect"
  stated that when a
  connection between a
  stimulus and response is
  positively rewarded it will
be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened. Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward,
(punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
- The "law of exercise"
  held that the more an
  SR(stimulus response)
  bond is practiced the
  stronger it will become.
As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike found that
practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
Looking more specifically at academic learning, i.e. the content of a lesson, rather than managing the behaviour within it,
 -Thorndike's "Theory of  
 Transfer of Identical
 Elements" represents the
 central behaviourist
 stance, that the amount of
 learning that can be
 generalized between a
 familiar situation and an
 unfamiliar one is
 determined by the number
 of elements that the two
 situations have in
 common. He concluded
 that education does not
 generalize easily and that
 if it is to be preparation for
 life beyond school, then it
 should be as life-like as
 possible.
Also Thorndike maintained
that a skill should be introduced when a learner is conscious of their need for it as a means of
satisfying some useful purpose.
-Regarding material,  
 Skinner specified that to  
 teach well, a teacher must  
 decide exactly what it is  
 they want to teach - only
 then can they present the
 right material, know what
 responses to look for and  
 hence when to give
 reinforcement that usefully
 shapes behaviour.
He suggested 3 principles which teachers should use to promote effective learning:
1) present the information    
to be learned in small
behaviourally defined
steps.
2) give rapid feedback to
pupils regarding the
accuracy of their 
    learning (learning being
indicated by overt pupil
responses)
3) allow pupils to learn at
    their own pace.
Building on these   
   development - problem    
   solving skills of tasks      
   can be placed into 3
   categories:
Those performed independently by the learner.
Those that cannot be performed even with help.
Those that fall between the 2 extremes, the tasks that can be performed with help from others.
Seymour Papert
· Mathetics—the art of learning.
· Guidelines for the art of
  learning.
1st  principle-Give yourself  
                     time.
2nd principle-discussion.
3rd principle-look for
                    connections.
· The building of
  knowledge is the goal.  
  Decrease amount
  of teaching and increase
  student projects. 
  proposed an alternative
  teaching  technique 
  called programmed  
  learning/ instruction &
  also a teaching machine
  that could present
  programmed material.

Watson
Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love & rage.
All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response
associations through conditioning.
Piaget
· Human intelligence & biological  
  organisms function in similar ways.
  They are both organized systems  
  that constantly interact with the
  environment.
· Knowledge is the interaction   
  between the individual and the
  environment.
· Cognitive development is the 
  growth of logical thinking from 
  infancy to adulthood.

Vygotsky
Vygotsky’s components of Cognitive Development:
· Mastering symbols of the culture 
  and developing the cultural
  forms of reasoning.
· Complex functions begin as social 
  interactions between individuals;
  gradually acquire meaning and
  are internalized by the learner.
· Speech and other symbols are first
  mastered as a form of 
  communication and eventually   
  structure & manage a child’s  
  thinking.
· Zone of Proximal Development 
  focuses on interactive problem
  solving.
Relevance to
Educational
Technology/ Implications
· Identify possible  
   reinforcers by observing
   behaviours of learners
· Select Stimulus
· Identify and describe the
  terminal objective –
  observable behaviour
· By a process of shaping   
  & smaller steps achieve  
  goals
· Mastery learning is an eg
  ff behavioural approach
· Behaviourism still
  continues to play a large
  role in motivation,
  classroom management,  
  and  special education
  needs.

Implications of Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory in Teaching & Learning 

1. Newly learned skill or
technique ought to be
given continuous
reinforcement.
2. Use of positive
   reinforcement which
   glues present result is
   more effective.
3. Extinction process by
means of Operant
Conditioning & can be
used to modify pupils
undesirable behaviour
e.g. to withdraw the
reinforcement which has
been given before.
4. Guide pupils to master
the concept of
discrimination through
the operant conditioning
process so that they will
acquire the knowledge &
skill accurately.
5.Negatively reinforcement
   is also suitable & can be
   used to achieve and
   desired behaviour.(If
   the pupils did not follow
   the rules or discipline in
   the classroom).

Cognitivists believe learners
develop learning through receiving, storing and retrieving information.

With this idea, it is important for
instructional designers to thoroughly analyse & consider the appropriate tasks needed in order for learners to effectively & efficiently process the information received.

Likewise, designers must consider the relevant learner characteristics that will promote or impede the
cognitive processing of information.
· Do task analysis & learner analysis
· Create tests
· Create learning materials 
  according to any one of the
  Instructional Design Models

Implications of cognitive theories:
- Cognitive processes influence
  learning.
- As children grow, they become
  capable of increasingly more
  sophisticated thought.
- People organize the things they
  learn.
- New information is most easily
  acquired when people can
  associate it with things they have
  already learned.
- People control their own learning.

Possible
Learning
Activities
· Instructional cues to elicit   
  correct response
· Practice paired with
  target stimuli
· Reinforcement for correct  
  responses
· Building fluency (get
  responses closer and
  closer to correct
  response)
· Multiple opportunities/  
  trials (Drill  and practice)
· Discrimination (recalling
   facts)
· Generalization (defining
  and illustrating concepts)
· Associations (applying
  explanations)
· Chaining (automatically
  performing a specified
  procedure)
· Explanations
· Demonstrations
· Illustrative examples
· Gestalt Theory
· Matched non-examples
· Corrective feedback
· Outlining
· Mnemonics
· Dual-Coding Theory
· Chunking Information
· Repetition
· Concept Mapping
· Advanced Organizers
· Analogies
· Summaries
· Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation
· Interactivity
· Synthesis
· Schema Theory
· Metaphor
· Generative Learning
· Organizational strategies
· Elaboration Theory




             Learning Theories

Comparison
Among
L. Theories
Constructivism
Humanistic
List of Key
Theorists
John Dewey
Jerome Bruner
Merrill Lev Vygotsky
Seymour Papert
Abraham Harold Maslow
Carl Rogers
James F.T Bugental

Role of
Learners

· Learning is an active
  process in which learners  
  construct new ideas or  
  concepts based upon
  their current/past
  knowledge, social
  interactions & motivation 
  affect the construction.

- Learning is an active   
   process/pupils participate
   actively in Learning activities
- Pupils determine the learning  
  materials, method of learning, 
  quantity of learning & values
- making a right or wrong
  choice is entirely the pupils’   
  responsibility
Role of
Teachers
· Educators focus on making
  connections between facts
  & fostering new
  understanding in students.    
  Instructors tailor their
  teaching strategies to   
  student responses and  
  encourage students to  
  analyse, interpret & predict  
  information.
  Teachers also rely heavily  
  on open-ended questions   
  and promote extensive  
  dialogue among students.
· Constructivism calls for the
  elimination of a
  standardized curriculum.  
  Instead, it promotes   
  using curricula customized
  to the students' prior
  knowledge. Also, it
  emphasizes hands-on 
  problem solving.
- facilitator and organiser to
  motivate pupils to use their
  own learning strategy to
  achieve self-perfection
- be aware of pupils’ need
  help pupils to acquire
  knowledge
- guide pupils so that their
  potentials can be develop to
  the optimal level
- create non-threatening
  environment / condition
- teaching and learning
  strategy should be designed   
  to follow individual needs and
  emotional development
- teaching and learning  
  activities should be related to
  actual life experience to instil
  values of living skills among
  pupils
- school provide opportunity
  for  pupils to discover  
  themselves and master
  reflective thinking skill to
   access their own self and to   
   acquire the ability for self
   discipline

Key Concepts

Constructivism focuses on how  learners construct their own meaning. They ask questions, develop answers and interact and interpret the environment.
By doing these things, they incorporate new knowledge with prior knowledge to create new meanings.
1. Multiple perspectives and
Representations of  
concepts & content r
presented& encouraged.
2. Goals and objectives are
derived by the student or
in negotiation with the
teacher or system.
3. Teachers serve in the role
    of guides, monitors,   coaches, tutors& facilitators.
4. Activities, opportunities,
tools &environments are
provided to encourage
metacognition, self-
analysis - regulation, -
reflection & - awareness.
5. The student plays a
central role in mediating
& controlling learning.
6. Learning situations,   
   environments, skills,     
   content & tasks are
   relevant, realistic,  
   authentic &represent the    
   natural complexities of the   
   'real world'.
7. Primary sources of data
   are used  in order to   
   ensure authenticity & real-
   world complexity.
8. Knowledge construction &
    not  reproduction is
    emphasized.
9. This construction takes
place in individual
contexts and through  
social negotiation,    
 collaboration & experience.
10.The learner's previous
     knowledge constructions,  
     beliefs and attitudes
     are considered in the
     knowledge construction
     process.
11. Problem-solving, higher  
   order thinking skills and   
   deep understanding are
   emphasized.
12. Errors provide the  
opportunity for insight into  
students' previous
    knowledge constructions.
13. Exploration is a favoured
      approach in order to
      encourage students to
      seek knowledge 
      independently and to
     manage the pursuit of
     their goals.
14. Learners are provided
      with the opportunity for
      apprenticeship  
      learning in which there is
      an increasing complexity
      of tasks, skills and
      knowledge acquisition.
15. Knowledge complexity is
      reflected in an emphasis
      on conceptual  
      interrelatedness &
      interdisciplinary learning.
16.Collaborative and
cooperative learning are  
favoured in order to 
expose the learner to
alternative viewpoints.
17. Scaffolding is facilitated
      to help students perform
      just beyond the limits of
      their ability.
18. Assessment is authentic
      and interwoven with
      teaching.



Implication of constructivism
-  in teaching & learning the
   role of the teacher is an 
   advisor, facilitator,planner,
   motivator and assistant
-  the most suitable method
   is to use cooperative and
   collaborative model
-  pupil’s knowledge &
   awareness are important
   factors that influence the
   process of cognitive
   development
-  assist pupils to use their
   acquired knowledge to
   relate & apply to the
   learning of new knowledge
-  foster intrinsic motivation
   for pupils to learn on their
   own initiative
-  traditional evaluation is
   not suitable
-  the format and instrument
   of evaluation used for
   knowledge acquisition
   must be constructed by
   teacher & pupils together
-  pupils are encourage to
   use critical & creative
   thinking skills to solve
   problems
-  metacognitive skills are
   emphasised
-  reflective thinking to
   control, assess & make
   reflection on the result &
   achievement

Humanism focuses on recognising human capabilities in areas such as creativity, personal growth and choice.

1. Main concept: Human  
  nature basically good &noble. 

2. Theory of hierarchical  
    needs is basically the 
    motivation theory in 
    humanistic psychology.

3.Main core: Theory of Self- 
  Actualization:

 4. Education development 
should be “pupil-centred”.
-  Teaching emphasized on
individual potentials rather
than reading materials.
-  Meaningful & useful learning
   experiences. Fostering of       
   true, sincere &mutual trust
   between teacher & pupil.



   
How Does
Learning Take
Place

Constructivism promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily
measured and may not be the same for each learner.

Piaget
· All knowledge is a human 
  construction.
· The learner starts with a
   blank slate.
· Not logical thinking.

1. Learning is an internal  
process that occurs in the
mind of the individual.
2. Cognitive conflict is
essential to the learning
process.

Dewey
· Education’s connection
  with society, outside world,
  life.
· What we learn should have 
  meaningful relevancy.
· Instruction should centre
  around the child’s
  experience



Bruner
· Learner constructs new  
  ideas or concepts based
   upon their current /
   past knowledge
· Learning by discovery  
  through developmental  
  stages.
· Benchmarks reveal each
   stage of child’s 
   development, interaction &
   discovery is learning.
· Education relevant to  
   student’s need, stages in
   cognitive development
Merrill
· knowledge is constructed
  from experience
· learning is a personal
  interpretation of the world
· learning is an active
  process in which meaning
  is developed on the basis
  of experience
· conceptual growth comes
  from the negotiation of
  meaning, the sharing of
  multiple perspectives & the
  changing of our internal
  representations through
  collaborative learning
· learning should be situated
  in realistic settings; testing
  should be integrated with
  the task and not a separate  
  activity
Vygotsky's theory presents
three principles:
1. Making meaning –
   the community places a
   central role, and the    
   people around the student
   greatly affect the way he
   or she sees the world.
2. Tools for cognitive  
   development - the type
   and quality of these tools 
   (culture, language,
   important adults to the
   student) determine the
   pattern and rate of
   development.
3. The Zone of Proximal
    Development  
  – problem solving skills of
     tasks can be placed into
    three categories:
  i. Those performed
     independently by  the
     learner.
 ii. Those that cannot be  
    performed even with help.
iii. Those that fall between
the two extremes, the  
tasks that can be
performed with help from
others.





Seymour Papert
· Mathetics—the art of
                      learning.
· Guidelines for the art of
   learning.
  1st principle-Give yourself
                     time.
  2nd principle-discussion.
  3rd principle-look for
                     connections.
· The building of knowledge
   is the goal. Decrease
  amount of teaching and
  increase student projects.
Bugental (1976)
- Human experiences 
  psychology  are different from 
  animals
- Main team of research follow
  closely to the aim of 
  meaningful human living.
- study of human behaviours
  cover subjective internal 
  process & explicit behaviours.
- Humanistic psychology is
  base on psychology theory 
  & application of psychology.
- Basic consideration is
  emphasize on individual
  differences.
- Research based on the idea
  of contribution which will
  change human living to be
  come meaningful, peaceful &
  well being.

Carl Rogers
- Every individual experience is
  a logical phenomenon.
- Form his own unique concept
  through self-belief which are
  different from others.
- Individual explicit behaviour is  
  in accordance with his own
  self concept & belief.
- Experience & knowledge
  acquire from the environment  
  will enable the individual to  
  form self concept (positive &
  negative).
- Behaviour which has been
  displayed reflects individual
  self concept & belief.

Principles Of Rogers’s Approach In Education.
- Emphasize on learner
  centred education.
-  Emphasize on freedom to    
    learner.
- Rational & approach are :
  Learning is considered as a   
  curiosity  to know.
- Can only occur if the learning
  materials are meaningful as
  well as with the objective.
- Effectiveness will only occur
  when pupils take their own
  initiative & fully involve
  themselves in the learning
  activities.

Rogers’s view on education
- pupils participate actively in
  learning activities.
- Pupils take their own initiative
  and  involve themselves fully
  in learning activities then
  learning result attained would
  be optimal.
- The most effective learning is
  learn the way how to learn
  (pupils acquire knowledge by
  means of own learning & not
  much from teacher.
- Learning materials ,method of
  learning , quantity of learning
  & values should be determine
  by the pupils themselves.
- Teacher has to respect pupils
  opinion & choice.
- Games with creative
  elements & art education
  should contain high ethical &
  aesthetical values.
- Activates the feeling &
  emotional of pupils , thus
  enable them to develop  their
  potentials completely.
- School should provide
 opportunity 4 pupils 2 discover
 themselves $ master reflective
 thinking skills 2 asses their
 ownself as well as 2 acquire
 the ability 4 self-disipline.

Relevance to
Educational
Technology/ Implications
As opposed to an objective approach to learning, constructivism is more
open-ended in expectation where the results and even the methods of learning themselves are not easily
measured and may not be consistent with each learner.
· Case-Based Learning
· Authentic situations
· Multiple cases to build    
  cognitive flexibility
· Social interactions,
  collaborations
· Assessment of activity
· Shift teachers role to
  scaffolding, modelling,
  coaching of learners.
· Experiences are critical
· Shift from behavioural
  objectives to activity goals
· Advance organizers
-  in teaching & learning the
   role of the teacher is an 
   advisor,facilitator, planner,
   motivator and assistant
-  the most suitable method
   is to use cooperative and
   collaborative model
-  pupil’s knowledge &
   awareness are important
   factors that influence the
   process of cognitive
   development
-  assist pupils to use their
   acquired knowledge to
   relate & apply to the
   learning of new knowledge
-  foster intrinsic motivation
   for pupils to learn on their
   own initiative
-  traditional evaluation is
   not suitable
-  the format and instrument
   of evaluation used for
   knowledge acquisition
   must be constructed by
   teacher & pupils together
-  pupils are encourage to
   use critical & creative
   thinking  skills to solve
   problems
-  metacognitive skills are
   emphasised
- reflective thinking to  
  control, assess & make
  reflection on the result &
   achievement

- stresses the importance of
  developing individual
  potentials
- strategy & method for
  teaching & learning should  
  be orientated towards pupil-
  centred
- individual teaching method
- inquiry-discovery
- practical approach
- enrichment and remedial
  activities
Possible
Learning
Activities
· Modelling
· Collaborative Learning
· Coaching
· Scaffolding
· Problem-Based Learning
· Authentic Learning
· Anchored Instruction
· Cognitive Flexibility
   Hypertexts
· Object-based Learning
- Individual learning
- group activity with teacher as  
  facilitator.
- inquiry-discovery (science-
  observing the life cycle of a
  frog)
- discussion
- brainstorming
- problem solving
- simulation


       Behavioural psychologists
  1. Learners need grades, gold stars, and other incentives as motivation to learn and to accomplish school requirements.
  2. Students should be graded according to uniform standards of achievement which the teacher sets for the class.
  3. Curriculum should be organized along subject matter lines that are carefully sequenced.
   Cognitive psychologists
  1.  Teachers need to determine what students are thinking about while solving math problems.
  2. The teacher should help students to monitor and control their own learning behaviour.
    Humanistic psychologists
  1.  Learners can be trusted to find their own goals and should have some options or choices in what they learn at school.
  2.  Students should set their own individual standards and should evaluate their own work.
  3. The school experience should help students to develop positive relations with their peers
.



source: my friends via email ...thanks a lot guys <3


1 comment:

  1. terima kasih sudaahh sharing~ ^^ sangat membantu dan bermanfaat sekaliii ^^

    ReplyDelete

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